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When side effects do occur, they are typically mild and may include: Mild gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, diarrhoea, or upset stomach, particularly when starting supplementation or taking high doses on an empty stomach Skin reactions including itching, rash, or a sensation of swelling, though these are uncommon Headache or dizziness in some individuals, particularly with intramuscular injections Injection site reactions (pain, redness, or swelling) when B12 is administered via intramuscular injection for deficiency treatment It is important to note that serious adverse effects are rare

Minerva Pediatr 2022;74:77488

Several microorganisms like Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium get transferred to the infant gut and play a key role in its colonization and programming

The morphological characteristics of pyroptosis, which significantly differ from the molecular execution mechanisms of apoptosis and other forms of programmed cell death, typically manifest as a rapid loss of cell membrane integrity, cell swelling, and membrane pore formation, releasing inflammatory mediators (Fischer et al., 2021